In Praise of the F Word Essay

According to, In Praise of the F Word, by Mary Sherry tens of thousands will graduate high school with meaningless diplomas. Those with meaningless diplomas are the ones who’s been passing along even though they don’t truly understand the materials taught to them. Sherry argues that our educational system is to blame for cheating those students out of a proper education; however, an easy remedy is for teachers to use the trump card of failure. Sherry claims that before students can concentrate, the teacher needs to get their attention first. I agree with Sherry that it’s unfair to those student cheated by our educational system but her trump card of failure doesn’t solve the problem. Instead, it feels more like a threat to the student than a motivation. Her method is incompatible for all students because all student are different and it takes a teacher’s involvement to understand, not a teacher’s threat. Sherry used blame the student’s lack of concentration to the class but instead she now blames the failure to get the student’s attention. No matter what distraction are at hand for the student, the teacher needs to get the student’s attention first. Sherry states that there are many ways to do this depending on the teaching style but one sure way is the trump card of failure. She points out an example of her son who was lacking attention in class and then received the trump card of failure. It resulted in her son finishing the semester with an A. I feel like Sherry’s argument is incomplete. She doesn’t acknowledge that all students are different, and that some come from a more rugged background than others. Different students need to be treated differently, so one method will not work on all students. For example, there are students that plainly do not understand the material taught to them so instead they make excuses. Teachers will see the student’s excuse as a lack of attention and fail that student but instead all that student needs is a bit of guidance. Sherry’s method will not work for students that are afraid to ask for help. Furthermore, the threat will not help the student but give the doubt in their abilities. A tool for motivation turns into a tool for discouragement. Instead of facing the challenge head on with the help of the teacher, the students are left alone with the threat ringing in their ears. Students that can’t take the pressure eventually drop out, students that can just keep to themselves and barely passing by. I admit that Sherry brings up a good point; In order for a student to succeed in school, they first need to be attentive. Teachers need to find way to get the student’s attention but Sherry’s one all be all way will not help the teacher nor the students. Sherry implies that students perceive education as less important compared to their adult counterparts. no matter what environments they come from† students will not put school as a top priority on their list. Her argument was that for adults, even with complications in life i. e. unemployment, drug, abusive relationship, still make an effort towards higher education. Sherry states that compared to the adults, students rather be carefree while on cruise control through school. I wholeheartedly agree with Sherry that students would rather have a fun stress free school life instead of a prison, but I have a problem with her implications of a â€Å"terrible environments. Sherry hints that environments does not affect a student’s involvement in school but i think she’s severely inaccurate. Where a student come from, i. e. his life’s background, greatly affect what kind of person that student will turn out to be. For example, a student can come from a background that greatly values education; at the same time, another student can come from a background that could care significantly less about education. Not everyone is molded the same, there are students that are eager to learn, while there are also students that would refuse the help of a teacher. Sherry claims that the threat of flunking can be used as a positive teaching tool; a show of confidence by the teacher and parent to the student. However, She also completely fails to specify why students fail in the first place. There are students who doesn’t value education because of their unsupportive parents. Sherry’s son might be an inaccurate example because not all students have an english teacher as a parent. My friend Hao is a perfect example. Hao and I were best friends in middle school and freshmen year high school. His parents are always working so he’s exceedingly relaxed towards school. Everytime I hang out with him he’s either playing video games or watching movies. Eventually the lack of care for school caught up with him and he was held back for another freshman year. We try to keep in touch but our friendship grew apart because we aren’t in the same grade anymore. Sometime we would go weeks without seeing each other and the intervals just got longer each time. The times I do see him, I can tell he’s miserable. He dropped out without telling me and to this day I still wonder if I encouraged him alittle more about school, maybe he would’ve graduated with me. To my friend, Hao, school was just not important to him and even a threat of failure will not convince him otherwise. In his world, games were more important and school is just a nuisance. He was never taught the true value of an education by his parents. I know he’s not alone and there are many students like him. Although their world might not be gaming, it could be something else like friends, drugs, intercourse, etc. Sherry’s trump card of failure would of failed them, instead they need support not threats. While Sherry may claim that the success of the trump card of failure in the past. I would like to point out that things are forgotten for a reason. In this care the trump card of failure is deemed ineffective against the youths of today. Her method of teachers using threats against students for their attention will not help but damage. Everyone is unique and teachers need to deploy unique tactics to encourage students. A word of threat can only get so far, but the consequence greatly outweighs the worth.

Multi-National Corporate Rewards Program

Multi-National Corporation Rewards Program Tammy Engel CTU Online MGM336 March 19, 2012 Professor Moutaz Abou-Robieh Abstract Designing a rewards program that will be an attraction for new employees and a reason to stay for existing staff can be difficult for any corporation, but is made even more so when the company becomes international. There are several factors that influence employee motivation and these may be affected by culture, environment, socio-economics, and politics.A study of the motivating factors for employees located in the United States, France, and Japan will be presented, along with effective leadership characteristics for those respective locations. A preliminary rewards program for each division of the company will also be presented. Multi-National Corporation Rewards Program A rewards program or benefits package is always a large part of an employee’s decision to apply with, accept, or keep a job with any organization.The program must hold appeal to the employee and be appropriate for the location, especially if the company is a multi-national organization. Some benefits may not work in other countries, for example employee recognition in America usually consists of singling an individual out for kudos, while in Japan this type of recognition would be extremely uncomfortable for the employee. Influencing factors for the creation of appropriate rewards programs for our multi-national corporation (MNC) will be discussed. These will include employee motivation factors and successful leadership characteristics.Understanding Motivation There are several internal and external factors that can motivate an individual. There have been many studies by psychologists that focus on these factors including Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the ERG theory, the motivator-hygiene/intrinsic-extrinsic need theory, and the achievement theory. There is one overriding problem with all of these theories; they are based on Western European and the Unite d States and therefore may not be applicable to employees that are not from these locations.Even within these areas there will be some variation in the motivational factors for any employee. Since these theories do offer some valuable insight into the psyche of two-thirds of our MNC, we will discuss their implications. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is based on the premise that an individual’s needs are grouped into five main categories; these categories are contingent upon one another in that Maslow believed the one could not move on to achieving or being motivated by the next category of needs until the previous ones had been met. Phatak, Bhagat, & Kashlak, Motivating and Leading across Borders and Cultures392, 2009) These categories are physiological needs such as food, shelter, and health; safety needs – shelter and security; belonging needs, feeling part of a group, love; esteem needs such as self-esteem and the respect of others; and finally self-actualizatio n needs which would indicate achieving one’s ultimate potential. Similar to Maslow’s hierarchy is the ERG theory developed by Clayton Alderfer.The ERG theory classifies needs into three intertwined categories; existence needs (think physiological and safety needs), relatedness needs (similar to belonging and respect needs), and growth needs (this relates to self-esteem and self-actualization). Other theories categorize these needs differently, but all are very similar. While there is some credence to these theories, as stated there is one overriding problem: they are based on an Eastern European/American individual.There may be some applicability to the employees of our MNC from North American, less applicability for those from France, and little applicability to our Japanese staff. All of these theories are based upon higher order needs such as individual achievement, self-actualization, and affiliation. Individuals from the Japanese division may be more concerned wit h lower order needs such as safety, security, and physical comforts. Phatak, Bhagat, & Kashlak, Motivating and Leading across Borders and Cultures392, 2009) Other theories are based on process theories rather than psychological aspects of behavior. One such theory is called the expectancy theory. This concept states that employees are motivated by expectations from management, linking behaviors with outcomes, and basing behavior on a reward system. The equity theory is similar to this in that employees will attempt to balance their work behavior according to what they see others do (or not do). Phatak, Bhagat, & Kashlak, Motivating and Leading across Borders and Cultures392, 2009) There are three norms associated with this theory: the norm of equity, the norm of need, and the norm of equality. This theory is especially applicable to our American division. Another aspect of motivating employees is the relationship between managers and their respective employees. These individuals mus t be able to work closely to formulate realistic goals for the employees based on the clear communication of the company’s mission and vision.Application of Motivational Theories As stated, our managers need to be very careful about how the motivate our employees based upon the physical location of the employee, the cultural background of the individual, and the other intrinsic and extrinsic factors that may influence that employees behavior. Employees located in more individualistic countries such as America and France will be more motivated by intrinsic factors and self-actualization needs. These individuals are more concerned with equitable treatment as compared to earning similar pay for similar work.Other appealing rewards or benefits may include paid time off, insurance, and consistent salary increases. These individuals will be concerned with the comforts that the work environment has to offer including roomy office spaces; comfortable break rooms; amenities like gyms, lunch service, and childcare; these employees value their individualism and will appreciate being publically recognized for a job well done. Conversely, our Japanese employees will be more concerned with extrinsic and basic safety/physiological needs. Phatak, Bhagat, & Kashlak, Motivating and Leading across Borders and Cultures392, 2009) These individuals value family and loyalty. Many generations of a family live together, so they may not feel that childcare is a worthy benefit as they have family available to take care of children or elderly relatives. Culturally Appropriate Reward Programs The rewards programs for our company will consist of a base package that will be appropriate and applicable to all divisions. Salary will be based on experience and company subsidized insurance will be available.Recognition awards for milestone achievement will be given to our American and French employees at monthly staff meetings, while these same types of awards will be given to our Japanes e employees privately and with little fanfare, respecting their privacy. Working environments will be clean and meet the highest safety standards available for all branches. Individuals will be provided access to all managerial staff along with some appropriate autonomy depending upon position and duties. Employees will also be strongly encourages to participate in a team culture within the workplace, with an emphasis on collaboration and cohesion.Each employee will be provided a generous allotment of paid time off; this will be highly valued by each division. (Phatak, Bhagat, & Kashlak, International Human Resources Management, 2009) Employees in France will be allowed the use of company owned vacation property. The US division will be provided with company subsidized legal and financial aid, while the Japanese employees will be given a monthly family allowance based upon the number of individuals in their family. These additional benefits are specific to location and monetarily eq uivalent between divisions.Leadership Types Each division will be led by individuals carefully chosen from the native locale. This will help to ensure that communication is clear and precise and that cultural moires are familiar and followed. All managers will be required to cross-train across continents so that they are aware of and familiar with the workings of each respective division. Our American managers will be specifically chosen for their abilities to set goals, interpersonal skills, and proven leadership history. The French management staff will be chosen for similar characteristics.The Japanese leadership will be chosen for proven leadership roles and ability to be available to the employees as well as to promote a team atmosphere. Our leaders will be encouraged to set clear goals for our employees and to meet individually with employees directly under them to communicate these goals. Upper management will be encouraging staff under them to be innovative and to communicat e those ideas throughout the business. While magnetism and charm will draw employees to a management figure in the US and France, this characteristic is not appropriate in Japan. (Phatak, Bhagat, &Kashlak, International Human Resources Management, 2009) Another characteristic that should be inherent in our managers is the ability to promote workplace and task pride. This is an important factor for motivating all employees, regardless of the location. Leaders should be trustworthy and possess excellent communication skills, good team building capabilities, and exceptional bargaining abilities. Conclusion It is extremely important to evaluate several aspects of the environment and culture prior to entering into a business relationship with any international location.This is especially important when the culture that you are entering is unique and unfamiliar to you and your company. Many factors can affect how employees from these varied locations will work and how they are motivated t o work; careful study of these can help to increase the likelihood of success for your business. Most importantly, hiring good leadership to oversee these areas is vital. Good leaders will help to promote and build the existing business, encourage cohesion among employees and divisions, and will be able to successfully communicate the prevailing mission of the business.References Phatak, A. V. , Bhagat, R. S. , & Kashlak, R. J. (2009). International Human Resources Management. In A. V. Phatak, R. S. Bhagat, & R. J. Kashlak, International Management: Managing in a Diverse and Dynamic Global Environment (Second ed. , pp. 436-468). Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Phatak, A. V. , Bhagat, R. S. , & Kashlak, R. J. (2009). Motivating and Leading across Borders and Cultures392. In A. V. Phatak, R. S. Bhagat, & R. J. Kashlak, International Management: Managing in a diverse and Dynamic Global Environment (Second ed. , pp. 392-435). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

The “Ohlone Way”

The Ohlone are native peoples who, prior to Spanish colonization, inhabited the coastal region of Northern California. Although regarded as one group, the Ohlone, also called Costanoans, were in truth composed of small, independent groups with members ranging from 100-250 (Cartier, 1991). Their values and perception of the world gave rise to a subsistence economy, communal culture and equalitarian leadership structures. Unlike other larger native Americans who settled down into elaborate cities and developed complex economies, the Ohlone tradition was largely communal (Cartier, 1991).They viewed the land and all resources in nature as sacred. Nature was not something to be individually owned because man not superior to nature but is part of it. Man then has the common responsibility to take care of it for the welfare of future generations. As such, their economy was largely subsistence based which means they worked to obtain what was just enough to keep them alive. There was no conce pt of accumulation of wealth or private property (Margolin, 1978). The tools used in production were crude. They moved their communities a lot in order to follow the bounty of nature ready for harvest.These movements also allow the regeneration of the resources they have used. Because of these factors, their activities were limited to hunting, horticulture, fishing and gathering (Cartier, 1991). A group activity, animals were hunted, trapped or poisoned to be eaten. By pruning, reseeding and burning, the availability of plants extremely necessary for their survival were ensured. They picked medicinal herbs, shells, nuts, eggs and other items they needed. This economy gave rise to a politics that is equalitarian. Leadership was not based on property but on wisdom, capacity and character, the determinants of social status (Margolin, 1978).Although there were wealthier members in the group, they did not take advantage of those who are poorer. Rather, it is the wealthy who were obligate d to provide the resources needed for festivities or to contribute the most during the death of another member. In summary, the Ohlone, may seem backward compared to other indigenous groups or to the present society. However, their economy, politics and culture were the products of their interaction with nature. Because lifeways change over time, population growth and the discovery of better tools and technology would have no doubt contributed to their development as a people.

Middle East Agreements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Middle East Agreements - Essay Example The major players in these agreements as stated by Goldschmidt were the British, Arabs, French, and Zionist. The British appear are a common force in the separate agreements (Goldschmidt and Davidson, 2009). These agreements were signed with the motivation being the different regional interests presented by the parties signing the agreements. Goldschmidt and Davidson try to address the cause of Arab bitterness. The Arab nations have always appeared to be divided. Muslim Arabs support for the Ottoman Empire was to protect Islamism. Christian Arab nationalist while under the Ottoman Empire did not mind who ruled them, but this changed when they were under the rule of Tanzimat reformers. The Maronites benefited from French protection in the 19th century, whereas the Russians offered protection for the Greek orthodox Syrians. The American and French missionaries were the first to spread their influence over in Syria. The Americans in trying to solve the issue on education in Syria did in fluence the rise for the need for nationalism in the Arab nations. The idea of nationalism was initially not for the whole of Arab, but it targeted the independence of Lebanon. However, it is evident that graduates of the American university of Beirut spread the concept of Arab nationalism among the Christian and Muslim speakers of Arabic (Goldschmidt and Davidson, 2009). The revolt by Arabs was because of their need to be free to decide on their interests such as leadership preferences as well as religious issues, which was controlled by the young Turks. The call for a Muslim holy war against Britain Russia and France did cause unrest in the Middle East. The British serving in Egypt and Sudan had to formulate a plan to counter the pan Islamic proclamation. According to Esposito, a call for holy war is a practice common to Islamists. Esposito explains that a jihad to Islam is a defensive struggle (Esposito, 2011). A call by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire for a holy war was in an effort to expand the Ottoman Empire. The British had to build allies in revolting against the Ottoman Empire. The British ended up signing three war agreements, which have presented controversial issues in the leadership, in Middle East. The three war agreements are controversial in the sense that, the Arabs under the leadership of Hussein believed they would gain their independence having guaranteed Britain a victory against the Ottoman Empire. However, in the Balfour agreement Britain’s promise an Arab land Palestine to the Zionist upon its victorious win against ottoman rule. The French, on the other hand, knew that when they allied with Britain and won the war they would divide Middle East into spheres of influence. The Hussein McMahon correspondence represents a debatable aspect of the British involvement in the Middle East. The two leaders exchanged eight letters that negotiated the conditions under which Husain would encourage Arabs to rebel against the Ottoman Empire. The revolt was also a plan to enter the First World War by supporting the allies, the British. The terms of the letters were that, after the war, British was to declare the independence of the Arab areas namely Syria Jordan Israel Iraq west bank Gaza and Saudi Arabia. Hussein did lead the Arabs revolt, but at the end of the war, the Arabs were disappointed due to the disagreement between the McMahon and Hussein over the

Border control for imigration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Border control for imigration - Essay Example Strict border control laws are a need for today’s American society as such laws will provide protection to current workforce of America and to protect taxpayers right to access welfare. Body During the period of 1814, Francis Scott Key stated that the land of America is free and houses the bravest of all and today American society comprises of people belonging from different ethnic background (Hart 36). To a certain extend this has proven to be quite advantageous for the American society and its members, but now it is proving to hurt the already existing citizens of America. One of the reasons due to which the notion promoted by Francis Scott Key and poor border control policies has hurt the Americans is that due to increase in illegal immigration, the existing nationals of America face a higher fear of remaining unemployed. When illegal immigrants make to the American nation, they tend to take up jobs that do not require much skill set and the current citizens of US who are l ack skills to work in high paying jobs end up being jobless. According the census bureau of the nation under discussion, during the period of 2009, there were a total of more than 61k high school graduates belonging to different races and both male as well as female gender (United States Census Bureau 1). These fresh high school graduates lack skills and abilities as compared to the skills and abilities of college and bachelor level students and they are more likely to pursue careers in low paying jobs. If border control laws are not tightened then these high school students would fail to secure a careers and will fail to meet the needs of their own and their family members. Those who believe that strict border control is not essential defend their stance by stating that illegal immigration does not decrease employment opportunities for natives of US as the immigrants are not capable of speaking good English. For example: Peri states that although increase in immigrant population cr eate competition in areas of work where physical skills are required, but they cannot compete in areas where both physical and communication skills are required, thus native Americans have a competitive advantage over immigrants as they are well rehearsed with English speaking skills (Peri 165). Another issue with relaxed border control laws is that, these laws make the American taxpayers vulnerable and threatens their welfare. The United States have created a system through which it reimburses individuals for staying idle or they help those who are unemployed. This and several other benefits provided by the US for its citizens seem quite lucrative to people living in those nations where government does not contribute to the wellbeing of their citizens. In order to capitalize on such benefits, immigrants tend to move to United States from the host nations. Due to this, the tax payers who have tremendously added to the treasury of the United States for so many years end up being limi ted from their right of attaining welfare receipts as the welfare system even aids those who are not legally living in US. Those who contradict strict border laws state that the illegal immigrants add instead of eating the subsidy provided by the government. For example:

Quiz show Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Quiz show - Essay Example They told them to choose topics that they were well versed with and at times provided answers to the questions. They choose one who was to be on the lead and the questions they were to get right or deliberately wrong themselves. In 1957 the producers set to put a new figure into the limelight of the show. In this case, they had to fail the current top contestant Herb Stempel by asking to deliberately get a question that he knew the answer wrong, in order to disqualify him. They wanted to bring in the new top contestant Charles Van Doren. Doren was considered to be more handsome and young. He was also a bit famous because he was the son of a famous politic family known in the academic circles. In this light, how would bring more vigor and drama to the show, hence maintaining is popularity. Many people in the studio thought that he was not going to accept but when the time came, he â€Å"took the dive†. Although he was against the decision, he never wanted to go against the studio, he did it in good will. Kantian Ethical principles state that the only thing that is intrinsically good is â€Å"good will†. This principle owes its existence to the Enlightenment rationalism from where it was coined. It is there possible to judge the actions of both Herb Stempel and Charles Van Doren based on the above theory. One thing that is clear is that Stempel was not willing to lie on a question that he very well knew the correct answer. However, since he was a sacrificial lamb he had no option but to play along and cheat in order to put Doren in the top position. He did in good will so as to ensure the success of the studio and the famous program. However, it was not right of Doren to take his brothers position as the top contestant, knowing that he rightfully earned it. Despite this, he had to accept the chance since he was going to be on top of the game and all the focus was to

(Technology Supporting Business Processes 2 ) Assignment

(Technology Supporting Business Processes 2 ) - Assignment Example This has been through a number of aspects. First, the use of information system in businesses has largely shaped the decisions. Reason being; it can deliver all information needed. Consequently, with the availability of updated information business can make informed decisions. For example, in the event that the business owners are to choose between two factors, the system derives key indicators (costs, income, etc) for both. Therefore, this will result into making a choice that will be more efficient and competitive (How Information System Impact Organizations and Businesses, 2013). Second, the use of information system in business setting has influenced increased productivity. This is because automation of the process in a business increases the production speed. Moreover, this shifts employees’ attention to other duties that require critical thinking. Consequently, this makes the business more competitive. Furthermore, information system reduces the number of workers. As a result, the business will minimize expenses and increase profitability (Goessl, 2010). Third, information systems provide an efficient and effective way to store data. This enables quick accessibility. As a result, costs associated with setting up storage units are minimized (Doom, 2010). In conclusion, it is evident that through the incorporation of information business system, businesses are positively affected. This is because it minimizes costs associated with the production. Consequently, this ensures that businesses are competitive. Goessl, L. (2010, February). Advantages of Using Information System in Business. Retrieved July Thursday, 2014, from Inside Business: http://www.insidebusiness360.com/index.php/advantages-of-using-information-systems-in-business-14410/ How Information System Impact Organizations and Businesses. (2013). Retrieved July Thursday, 2014, from Slide

Personal statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 16

Personal statement - Essay Example I posses the ability to work well in both independent and team work environments. My work at Travelex has enabled me gain the confidence to deal with people face to face, working with team and managing workloads, this among others are the qualities that will enable me succeed in establishing a PGCE teachers training course in the UK. I am a very social person and enjoy interacting with people and especially students and children. I am an excellent team leader, and always try to lead my team diligently. I find it fulfilling and rewarding working with children and being able to guide them in their growing. I know that the primary teacher teaches across the curriculum and it necessary to be proficient in all areas. I believe that it is not only knowing the subject that is important as a teacher, but also knowing a child’s other needs individually. I have learnt that a teachers approach to a class can have great effects on the ability of the students to learn effectively. I intend on changing the way i teach often in order to maintain interest and focus in the students. Encouraging and praising students who are performing poorly is one of my strategies, this will in turn encourage them and eventually they will be able to achieve their desired goals. I intend on encouraging the use of verbal skills. This is very important for both children and adults and helps in clearer understanding and interpretation of information. I will also concentrate on visiting other schools in order to interact with other teachers. This will help me get more exposure, which will increase my knowledge an d enable me teach new things to my students. My exposure has enabled me acquire good ICT skills, this will enable handle any technical work that would arise in the institution. My outspoken grammar and ability to read well and write in English will help me in my teaching course. English is the major learning language in the UK thus this is an

The Socio-Political And Cultural Context of Nursing Essay

The Socio-Political And Cultural Context of Nursing - Essay Example There are various patterns of knowing in case of nursing practices that address the â€Å"who†, the â€Å"how† and the â€Å"what†. However, it has been understood that the pattern of the socio-political knowing tries to address the â€Å"wherein†. This pattern picks up views of the nurse from the thoughtful nurse-patient relation and tries to position it at the broader context where the nursing takes place. The sociopolitical knowing may be perceived as being understood at two levels. The first level is the sociopolitical context of the persons while the second one is the sociopolitical context of nursing as a profession (Barker, 2009). The term cultural competence can be defined as the capability to understand and respond in an effective manner to the needs such as cultural and linguistic that is brought to the healthcare experience by the health care providers and the organizations (Seright, 2007). Sex can be termed as the various biological and physiol ogical characteristics of male and female whereas the gender can be defined as the socially constructed behaviors, relationships, norms that are considered as appropriate by the society for men and women. The gender inequalities are considered to be a serious issue. The issue is not about the socially constructed differences between men and women. However, it is about that this difference provides rise to discrimination and inequalities. Since both men and women are biologically different, therefore differences in health risk, needs and conditions tend to arise. Social, Political and Cultural Context of Health and Inequalities across a Range of Groups and Contexts It has been found in the history of social work that there have been growing concerns regarding the social inequalities and also upon the focus to diminish systems of oppression. In the case of the British context, the approaches of anti-racist to social work appeared during the year 1980. This was in response to the conce rns over discrimination, inequalities, and injustice in providing the service and delivery along with the racism within the profession itself (Graham & Schiele, 2010). Both the terms oppression and discrimination are grounded on the belief of superiority of one group over the other along with the consequent rights of greater power and opportunity in the society. Oppression can be termed as political, economic and cultural actions and the behaviors that may harm the individuals through exploitation. In nursing, there are various patterns of knowing. However, two more patterns of knowing have also been found and it would be beneficial to include these within the reflection. One of the patterns of knowing is unknowing. Unknowing signifies awareness that the nurse doesn’t understand the patient when they first meet. When the nurse recognizes this unknowing then she tends to remain attentive to the clients’ perspectives. There has been a debate in the nursing literature reg arding the place that sociology occupies in nursing. According to the view of Cooke, nurses tend to have negative attitudes.  Ã‚  

How Financial and Non Financial Metrics can be used for quantify the Essay - 1

How Financial and Non Financial Metrics can be used for quantify the effectiveness of marketing campaign (Marketing Analytics) - Essay Example Verhoef and Leeflang (2009) assert the idea of financial metrics and state that influence of marketing department in the organisation is positively associated with the financial performance of the firm. Importance and role of the financial metrics for the effectiveness of the marketing campaign can be clearly assessed from the B&K Distributors. The company integrated marketing and communication tool for building its access to the potential customers. The use of the financial measures revealed clear future potential. For example, the growth potential was estimated to increase at 6% as compared to the inflation rate of 3%. Similarly, increased fixed cost for the IT system integration was also justified with 1% as compared to the 3% of the other channels investment (Jeffery and Anfield, 2006). Hence, in the similar format the cost of the entire project is assessed against the revenue and cost savings. This empirical evidence provides sound basis for the decision making in alignment with the main objective of the business which revolves around profitability. However, the net and actual increase in return is not defined after discounting the investment against factors such as the cost o f capital which is 12% and has considerable impact on the return inflows. This makes the investment and the claimed benefits questionable. Also the marketing activities with long term objective are also required to reflect on other parameters such as increase in customer loyalty and image of the company etc. It is important to notice the measure to enhance the image of the company by signing contract with leading fast food chain did not fetch to B&K significant business from independent franchisees. The new plan of IT integration and respective financial metrics and growth projections are again silent on impact on above mentioned parameters. In no contradiction to this fact

Women and Crime Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Women and Crime - Annotated Bibliography Example The journal discusses in details the various roles of women. It is very difficult for a woman to face the world of crime and help eradicate crime from the society. Women must mould her to become very strong so that she can face the offenders and take proper action against them. The journal is a very resourceful source of knowledge as it broadens our view on the roles of women and how efficiently the women can play the role as a police officer. Australasian Council of Women and Policing. (1999). The Journal for women and policing. Melbourne: Austral Media Group P/L. This scholarly journal refers to women and policing. It extensively discusses the role of women in the field of police. The journal discusses in detail how the women contribute in protecting the society and preventing crime. It also discusses the problems that the women have to face while working as a police officer in a professional work environment. Women have to face a lot many difficulties and hardships while working in a professional environment and facing offenders and people committing crime.

Greedy Based Approach for Test Data Compression Using Geometric Shapes Essay Example for Free

Greedy Based Approach for Test Data Compression Using Geometric Shapes Essay As the complexity of systems-on-a-chip continues to increase, the difficulty and cost of testing such chips is increasing rapidly. One of the challenges in testing SOC is dealing with the large size of test data that must be stored in the tester and transferred between the tester and the chip. The cost of automatic test equipment (ATE) increases significantly with the increase in their speed, channel capacity and memory. As testers have limited speed, channel bandwidth and memory, the need for test data reduction becomes imperative. This project deals with lossless compression of test vectors on the basis of geometric shapes. It consists of two phases: i) Encoding or Compression and ii) Decoding or Decompression. During the compression phase we exploit reordering of test vectors to minimize the number of shapes needed to encode the test data. The test set is partitioned into blocks and then each block is encoded separately. The encoder has the choice of encoding either the 0‘s or the 1‘s in a block. In addition, it encodes a block that contains only 0‘s (or 1‘s) and x‘s with only 3 bits. Furthermore, if the cost of encoding a block using geometric shapes is higher than the original cost of the block, the block is stored as is without encoding. We have created a new greedy based algorithm to find the shapes present in a block in minimal time. This algorithm after analysis seems to be at least 50% more efficient than the algorithm proposed by the author of the original paper which has been implemented in our program. During the decoding phase the data is read from the compressed file and decoded based on the format in which it was encoded. These phases have been implemented using software. The application gives a good compression ratio of nearly 50% under average conditions, is extremely fast and the shape extraction algorithm used provides fast extraction of shapes. To test a certain chip, the entire set of test vectors, for all the cores and components inside the chip, has to be stored in the tester memory. Then, during testing, the test data must be transferred to the chip under test and test responses collected from the chip to the tester. One of the challenges in testing SOC is dealing with the large size of test data that must be stored in the tester and transferred between the tester and the chip. The cost of automatic test equipment (ATE) increases significantly with the increase in their speed, channel capacity and memory. As testers have limited speed, channel bandwidth and memory, the need for test data reduction becomes imperative. 1. 2 Systems on a chip A system on a chip or system on chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit(IC) that integrates all components of a computer or other electronic system into a single chip. It may contain digital, analog, mixed-signal, and often radio-frequency functions—all on a single chip substrate. A typical application is in the area of embedded systems. A typical SoC consists of: †¢ A microcontroller, microprocessor or DSP core(s). Some SoCs nbsp—called multiprocessor system on chip (MPSoC)—include more than one processor core. †¢ Memory blocks including a selection of ROM, RAM, EEPROM and flash memory. †¢ Timing sources including oscillators and phase-locked loops. †¢ Peripherals including counter-timers, real-time timers and power-on reset generators. †¢ External interfaces including industry standards such as USB, FireWire, Ethernet, USART, SPI. †¢ Analog interfaces including ADCs and DACs. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 4 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Voltage regulators and power management circuits. These blocks are connected by either a proprietary or industry-standard bus such as the AMBA bus from ARM Holdings. DMA controllers route data directly between external interfaces and memory, bypassing the processor core and thereby increasing the data throughput of the SoC. Figure 1 Department of Computer Scien ce and Engg, TKMCE Page 5 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 1. 3 Data Compression Data compression, source coding orbit-rate reduction is the process of encoding information using fewer bits than the original representation would use. Compression is useful because it helps reduce the consumption of expensive resources, such as disk space or transmission bandwidth. On the downside, compressed data must be decompressed to be used, and this extra processing may be detrimental to some applications. For instance, a compression scheme for video may require expensive hardware for the video to be decompressed fast enough to be viewed as it is being decompressed (the option of decompressing the video in full before watching it may be inconvenient, and requires storage space for the decompressed video). The design of data compression schemes therefore involves trade-offs among various factors, including the degree of compression, the amount of distortion introduced (if using a lossy compression scheme), and the computational resources required to compress and decompress the data. Several test data compression techniques were proposed in the literature. These techniques can be classified into two categories; those that require structural information of the circuit and rely on automatic test pattern generation and/or fault simulation and those that are more suitable for intellectual property (IP) cores as they operate solely on the test data. Techniques of the first approach include some of the linear decompression-based schemes and broadcastscan-based schemes. Techniques of the second approach include statistical coding, selective Huffman coding , run-length coding , mixed run-length and Huffman coding , Golomb coding , frequency-directed run-length (FDR) coding , alternating run-length coding using FDR (ALT-FDR), extended frequency-directed run-length (EFDR) coding , MTC coding , variable-input Huffman coding (VIHC) , multilevel Huffman coding , 9-coded compression , Block Merging (BM) compression and dictionary-based coding . Test compression techniques in this class can be further classified as being test independent or test dependent. Test-independent compression techniques have the advantage that the decompression circuitry is independent of the test data. Changing the test set does not require any change to the decompression circuitry. Examples of test-independent compression techniques include Golomb coding, frequency-directed run-length (FDR) coding, alternating run-length coding Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 6 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes using FDR (ALT-FDR) , extended frequency-directed run-length (EFDR) coding , MTC coding , 9- coded compression and Block Merging (BM) compression 1. 4 Automatic Testing Equipment Automatic or Automated Test Equipment (ATE) is any apparatus that performs tests on a device, known as the Device Under Test (DUT), using automation to quickly perform measurements and evaluate the test results. An ATE can be a simple computer controlled digital multimeter, or a complicated system containing dozens of complex test instruments (real or simulated electronic test equipment) capable of automatically testing and diagnosing faults in sophisticated electronic packaged parts or on Wafer testing, including System-OnChips and Integrated circuits. ATE is widely used in the electronic manufacturing industry to test electronic components and systems after being fabricated. ATE is also used to test avionics and the electronic modules in automobiles. It is used in military applications like radar and wireless communication. . 4. 1 ATE in the Semiconductor Industry Semiconductor ATE, named for testing semiconductor devices, can test a wide range of electronic devices and systems, from simple components (resistors, capacitors, and inductors) to integrated circuits (ICs), printed circuit boards (PCBs), and complex, completely assembled electronic systems. ATE systems are designed to reduce th e amount of Figure 1. 2 test time needed to verify that a particular device works or to quickly find its faults before the part has a chance to be used in a final consumer product. To reduce manufacturing costs and improve yield, semiconductor devices should to be tested after being fabricated to prevent even a small number of defective devices ending up with consumer. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 7 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Chapter 2 2. 1 Problem Definition As the complexity of systems-on-a-chip continues to increase, the difficulty and cost of testing such chips is increasing rapidly. To test a certain chip, the entire set of test vectors, for all the cores and components inside the chip, has to be stored in the tester memory. Then, during testing, the test data must be transferred to the chip under test and test responses collected from the chip to the tester. Our application must be able to compress the test vectors by a significant percentage and it must also be lossless. In addition to these two basic requirements the program must extract the shapes from each block in an optimal manner (here the technique to be used is a greedy approach rather than a brute force one). Moreover the test data must be sorted and partitioned before shape extraction is done. The application must also be able to correctly decompress the encoded data. In order to obtain the shapes covering the bits in as little time as possible, we have created a greedy based algorithm which works in an overall time of O(n4). The original algorithm proposed by the authors of ? Test Data Compression based on Geometric Shapes? [1] on other hand requires one O(n4) operation to identify all possible covers and another O(n4) to find the optimal among them which is a brute force approach. 2. 2 Motivation for Project One of the challenges in testing SOC is dealing with the large size of test data that must be stored in the tester and transferred between the tester and the chip. The amount of time required to test a chip depends on the size of test data that has to be transferred from the tester to the chip and the channel capacity. The cost of automatic test equipment (ATE) increases significantly with the increase in their speed, channel capacity and memory. As testers have Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 8 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes limited speed, channel band-width and memory, the need for test data reduction becomes imperative. 2. 3 Problem Analysis The problem can be divided into the following phases 2. 3. 1 Test Set sorting Here sorting is done on the basis of its neighbors. Also to achieve maximum compaction the first vector after sorting must contain maximum number of zeroes. 2. 3. 2 Test Set partitioning Partitioning of test vectors into blocks can be done easily. But in the case of partial blocks which appears if the number of test vectors and size of test vectors are not integral multiples of N(block is of size N*N) we can partition the block as N*N and use a mark array to indicate which bits are not to be processed. . 3. 3 Shape Extraction Here the shapes must be extracted optimally which means we have to use a greedy algorithm. This algorithm was created and works superbly. 2. 3. 4 Decoding This is only a simple matter of finding the code and based on the code of filling up the test vectors. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 9 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Chapte r 3 3. 1 Encoding Phase 3. 1. 1 Test Set Sorting 3. 1. 1. 1 Description Sorting the vectors in a test set is crucial and has a significant impact on the compression ratio. In this step, we aim at generating clusters of either 0‘s or 1‘s in such a way that it may partially or totally be fitted in one or more of the geometric shapes shown in Table 3. 2. The sorting is with respect to both 0‘s and 1‘s (0/1-sorting). The technique is based on finding the distance D between two vectors A and B that maximizes the clusters of 0‘s and 1‘s. The next vector with the highest distance to the existing vector is selected during the sorting process. The distance D may be computed with respect to 0‘s (0-distance), to 1‘s (1-distance) or to 0‘s and 1‘s (0/1-distance) as follows: here k is the test vector length and W(Ai, Bi) is the weight between bits Ai and Bi. Table 3. 1 specify the weights used in computing the 0/1-distance between two vectors. Note that for i = 0, W(Ai, Bi-1) = 0 and for i = k 1, W(Ai, Bi+1) = 0. Table 3. 1 Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 10 Greedy Based Approach to Tes t Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Table 3. 2 3. 1. 1. 2 Algorithm 1. Find the vector with the maximum number of zeroes and interchange with first vector 2. i? 1 3. Compare ith vector with all other vectors from i+1 and calculate the distance based on the equation 4. Exchange the vector with maximum distance with ith vector 5. If ilt;n then i? i+1 Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 11 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 1. 2 Test Set Partitioning 3. 1. 2. 1 Description A set of sorted test vectors, M, is represented in a matrix form, R? C, where R is the number of test vectors and C is the length of each test vector. The test set is segmented into L? K blocks each of which is N? N bits, where L is equal to R/N and K is equal to C/N. A segment consists of K blocks. In other words, the test set is segmented into L segments each containing K blocks. For test vectors whose columns and/or rows are not divisible by the predetermined block dimension N, a partial block will be produced at the right end columns and/or the bottom rows of the test data. Since the size of such partial blocks can be deduced based on the number of vectors, the vector length and the block dimension, the number of bits used to encode the coordinates of the geometric shapes can be less than log2N. 3. 1. 2. 2 Algorithm 1. Partition the test vectors into 88 blocks( partial or full) 2. If block is partial then a. Mark the rest of the bit positions as already processed Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 12 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 1. 3 Shape Extraction 3. 1. 3. 1 Description This algorithm was created by our group to obtain the optimal covers of the shapes in as little time as possible. In our algorithm we begin by assuming that all other points before (i,j) has been processed. This means that if any new shape exists in this block it may only begin at a point greater than or equal to (i,j). Now if we are starting from (i,j) we need to check only four points adjacent to it along with (i,j). These positions are shown Figure 3. 1. This is a direct consequence of our initial assumption. Now let us assume that a shape begins from (i,j). Since no other shape has been detected so far, (i,j) is a point. Now the algorithm checks the four adjacent points to see whether the make any other shape when taken in combination with (i,j). Since (i,j) is classified as a point, the next possible shape that can be formed is a line. There are four possiblities for this. This is shown in Figure 3. 2. Figure 3. 1 Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 13 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Now if another of the adjacent points is a valid bit and if the current shape s a line,then the next figure that can be formed from 3 points is a triangle. This also has four different possiblities. This is shown by Figure 3. 3. Figure 3. 2 If the current shape is a triangle(type 4) and if another point adjacent to (i,j) is of the bit we are checking for then, the only remaining possiblity is a rectangle. This is shown by Figure 3. 4. Figure 3. 3 In orde r to avoid the possiblity of rechecking bits that have already been processed our algorithm uses a ? mark‘ matrix similar to the block of bits,except that every position other than what has already been included in a shape are marked as zeroes. Those that have been identified as belonging to a shape are marked as ones. We also insert the points that have to be processed by the algorithm in the next stage into a queue for faster processing of the rest of the shape. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 14 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Figure 3. 4 The anomalies that can occur during this approach are: ? There can be other shapes starting from the same point (i,j). Since we are performing a greedy search, the only possiblity that comes under this category are additional lines emanating from (i,j). This can be easily solved by saving the current shape as well as the newly identified line into the list of shapes. Then the algorithm performs all the above mentioned steps, i. e. marking the bits processed and inserting the points to processed later into the queue. ? Another problem related with this simple approach is that the type 1 traingle may recognized as a rectangle and a few lines if its size is greater than one. This can be avoided by computing the length of the side of square that may contain the triangle(if it exists ) and the length of both the diagonals. If the length of a side is the same as that of a diagonal then its indeed a traingle or a square. To distinguish between these we check whether the length of both diagonals are same. If they are not, then the shape is a triangle,otherwise it‘s a rectangle. The reason these anomalies needs to be carefully implemented is that anomaly 2 can increase the computational complexity of our oerall algorithm significantly if its to be solved. Once the shapes have been detected for what they are we process only those positions that may be a continuation of the shape are processed. Also the proceesing of these bits are only done in the direction of interest(for example, in the case of say type 1 line the only possible extension of the shape occurs in the downward direction and hence this is the only direction processed). This means that not all of the four adjacent positions need to be checked during further processing, which in turn reduces complexity. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 15 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Once a shape has been completely detected, which begins from (i,j), we start the processing of the next bit at position (i,j+1) or (i+1,1). This is necessary so as to ensure that we do not miss any shapes during proceesing. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 16 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 1. 3. 2 Algorithm Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 17 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 1. 3. 3 Complexity Analysis As we have seen the algorithm needs 3 loops. Out of this two is used to traverse the entire block. This gives us an outer loop complexity of O(n2). Then the third loop is always executed 4 times in order to check neighboring points. The actual detection of shapes is only a matter of addition of indices to (i,j) and checking to see whether they satisfy any of the conditions of the algorithm. Addition is done in constant time. Now although the detection of the kernel of shapes can be done in a constant time we need to spend some additional time in the case of anomaly 2. As mentioned earlier this can be solved by finding the length of the sides of the square containing it and the length of both the diagonals of the square. Also this must be the square that may contain the whole triangle. This means that in the worst case the lengths may be of size n. This gives us the complexity for this step to be 4O(n). The further processing of shapes that has been detected is done using a queue. The maximum number of times the queue can be executed is O(n2). This because there are at most that many bits in a block. Therefore the overall complexity for shape detection is O(n2) x4x(4O(n) + O(n2))=O(4n3 + n4)=O(n4). Now in average cases the queue will not need to contain the entire block, as the block can be assumed to be comprised of equal parts required and unrequired bits. This means that in the average case, shape extraction process predominates and average case complexity becomes O(n3). This is much better than a brute force approach to shape extraction. Even in the worst case our algorithm performs better as we do not need to perform a covering step to find the most optimal covers for the shapes detected. This would have taken another O(n4) which we avoid by directly using a greedy approach. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 18 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 1. 4 Encoding 3. 1. 4. 1 Description The encoding process will be applied on each block independently. The procedure Extract_Shapes(b) will find the best group of shapes that cover the bits that are equal to b as shown in the algorithm. Encode_Shapes determines the number of bits, a, needed to encode this group of shapes. There are two cases that may occur: a) The block contains either 0‘s and X‘s or 1‘s and X‘s. In this case, the block can be encoded as a rectangle. However, instead of encoding it as a rectangle, it is encoded by the code 01‘‘ (indicating that the block can be filled by either 0‘s or 1‘s) followed by the bit that fills the block. Hence, the number of bits to encode the block a = 3. We call such blocks filled blocks. ) The block needs to be encoded by a number of shapes. We call such a block encoded block. In this case, we need the following: ? 2 bits to indicate the existence of shapes and the type of bit encoded. If the encoded bit is 0, then the code is 10, otherwise it is 11. ? P = 2 ? log 2 N ? 3 Bits to encode the number of shapes, S. If the number of shapes exceeds 2P, then the number of bits needed to encode the shapes is certainly greater than the total number of bits in the block. In this case, the block is not encoded and the original test data is stored. 3. 1. 4. 2 Algorithm 1. While there are shapes to be encoded a. Find shape and type of shape b. Find x,y coordinates of shape c. If shape has a length parameter calculate its value d. Depending on shape and type encode the parameters as per table 2. 2 Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 19 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 2 Decoding Phase 3. 2. 1 Description The pseudo-code of the decoding algorithm is given below. It first reads the arguments given by the encoder and computes the parameters needed for the decoding process. These parameters include the number of segments, the number of blocks in a segment and the dimensions of the partial blocks. For each segment, its blocks are decoded one at a time. The first two bits indicate the status of the block as follows: ? ? ? ? 00: the block is not encoded and the following N*N bits are the original test data. 01: fill the whole block with either 0‘s or 1‘s depending on the following bit. 10: There are shapes that are filled with 0‘s. 11: There are shapes that are filled with 1‘s. For those blocks that have shapes, the procedure Decode_Shapes is responsible for decoding those shapes. It reads the number of shapes in the block and then for each shape it reads its type and based on this it reads its parameters and fills it accordingly. Based on the arguments read first, the decoder can determine the number of bits needed for each variable (e. g. the coordinates and the distances). These are used for the partial blocks when only one block of each segment remains and when the last segment is being decoded. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 20 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes 3. 2. 2 Algorithm Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 21 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Chapter 4 4. 1 Language Specification The above project has been implemented in C/C++. This is because C/C++ is a language very well suited for bit level manipulations and provides other features which can be easily implemented using hardware directly. Another consideration that is of paramount importance here is the degree by which C/C++ lends itself to system level programming. The key considerations can be summed up as: ? ? ? ? ? ? Simple Very High Speed Very close to assembly language Can be used to directly implement application using hardware Bit level manipulations are possible Dynamic . 2 Hardware Specification CPU RAM Main Storage Medium Monitor : Pentium II or above : 4 MB : 1 GB HDD : Standard VGA 4. 3 Software Specification Operating System Design Tools : DOS : C/C++ Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 22 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes Chapter 5 5. 1 Application One of the challenges in testing SOC is dealing with the large size of test data that must be stored in the tester and transferred between the tester and the chip. The amount of time required to test a chip depends on the size of test data that has to be transferred from the tester to the chip and the channel capacity. The cost of automatic test equipment (ATE) increases significantly with the increase in their speed, channel capacity and memory. As testers have limited speed, channel band-width and memory, the need for test data reduction becomes imperative. To achieve such reduction, several test compaction and lossless compression schemes were proposed in the literature. The objective of test set compaction is to generate the minimum number of test vectors that achieve the desired fault coverage. The advantage of test compaction techniques is that they reduce the number of test vectors that need to be applied to the circuit under test while preserving the fault coverage. This results in reducing the required test application time. Department of Computer Science and Engg, TKMCE Page 23 Greedy Based Approach to Test Data Compression using Geometric Shapes CONCLUSION In order to check the effective compression ratio produced by the application several different test sets were taken and the algorithm was applied. The test vectors were sorted to maximize the compression. In this work, test vectors were sorted based on a greedy algorithm. Test vectors sorting based on the 0/1-distance was performed. For 0/1-distance sorting, the test vector with more 0‘s was selected as the first vector. The compression ratio is computed as: In the case of large vectors with only sparsely populated positions the application was found to produce very high compression ratio. In the average cases the compression ratio was nearly 50%.

Waste Materials In Construction Sites

Waste Materials In Construction Sites Malaysian construction industry still faces increasing in the generation of construction waste materials and for sure they face problems in the removal of this waste. In the last two decades, huge construction building and infrastructure development projects have led to raise the production of construction waste material. The construction waste has a significant impact on the environment, and its environmental effects are in direct relation to the quality and quantity of the waste it generates. (Begum RA, Siwar C, Pereira JJ, Jaafar AH) In Malaysia, The construction industry generates a lot of waste material that can be reused and recycled. Most of the waste materials go into landfill which is both direct cost to construction, and workers productivity and also has wider environmental implication. Moreover, Malaysia have little reliable statistic of construction and demolition that shows the rate of waste generation, type of waste, method of handling process of wastage, and the quantity of materials wastage minimized at source, reused or recycled on-site or off-site in a specific type of construction such as residential construction. (Haliza B.M 2010) According to (Hassan et al. 1998) which shows that on average, the generation of waste can be breakdown into 36.73% from household waste, 28.34% from industrial and construction waste while other sources (market and commercial waste, institutional waste, landscaping waste and street sweeping waste) account for the remaining 34.93% in the Central and Southern region of Malaysia as shown in Figure 1.1. This figure shows that the waste generated from construction plays a significant role in contributing to the disposed in the landfills. PROBLEM STATEMENT The construction fields produce huge amounts of waste by consuming natural resources (Poon, 2007). Waste in the construction industry includes such delays as time, cost, lack of safety, rework, unnecessary transportation journeys, long distances, improper choice or management of programme or equipments and poor constructability.(Lee. et al.,1999) Wastages affect not only on environment its also bring extra project costs to the contractors and developers. Many countries especially the developed countries have started to aggressively recycle the construction materials due to its many benefits. In Malaysia, there is a huge potential in recycling of construction waste and if implemented correctly; will only bring about a construction resurgence. (Wong X. W. 2010) It is then obvious that waste management should be implemented. Reducing, reusing and recycling appear to be profitable alternatives that will increase the lifetime of landfills and reduce exploration of natural resources. (Woolley, 2000) Most importantly, our environment will not face more deterioration. In addition to the environmental benefits in reducing the demand on land for disposing the waste, the recycling of construction wastes, can also help to conserve natural materials and to reduce the cost of waste treatment prior to disposal (Poon, 2002). Despite the efficiency and expertise of the builders in the use of the material there is an increase in the cost of disposal of demolition waste, which requires the need to develop an effective plan for waste management options using the reduction and recycling. Contractors, developers, architects and engineers should have knowledge about how to deal with construction waste materials by reducing, reusing and recycling. Also the governmental authority must play a role by introducing suitable legislation to implement the law and follow up on all offenders who do not follow the laws. With the expansion of urban areas, all relevant parties must make sure that waste materials are minimized and there is a full execution of recycling, waste materials to guide the construction industry in the right direction. (Mohd.N. 2010) OBJECTIVE OF RESEARCH To identify the types of waste materials in construction site To determine approach being use at construction site to reduce waste materials. To give recommendation on reduce, reuse, and recycle of construction waste materials. SCOPE OF STUDY The study covers area of Selangor at Malaysia. SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY Construction industry has an important impact on the environmental in term of unbalanced ecology, change of living environment, potential sewage, and depletion of natural resources, energy usage and production of waste. This study will generally talk about reduction materials wastage issues in construction field. Reduce the material wastage in construction is approved in applying reuse, recycling and reduce the building materials in construction activities. This thesis reviews the technology on construction waste recycling and their viability. CHAPTER II LITRATURE REVIEW INRODUCTION On this chapter, definition, classifications, advantages of reduce waste construction materials and reasons that lead to waste the materials. Investigate or study the related information about this case in from literature information will be definitely implemented in the Methodology. Literature reviews is very important in the research works and consider as foundation for any study which depend on the information of previous researches that has been carried out on the related subject. It provides further knowledge about the scope of research. DEFINITION Construction waste material can be defined as the difference between the value of materials delivered and accepted on site and those properly used as specified and accurately measured in the work, after deducting the cost saving of substituted materials transferred elsewhere, in which unnecessary cost and time may be incurred by materials wastage. Construction waste is any material where there holder has an intention to discard the material as no longer part of the normal commercial cycle or chain of utility. (Ferguson, 1995). According to The environmental protection Act 1990 (EPA 90) Section 75 defines waste as any materials which formalizes remains substances or streaming or other unnecessary surplus substance coming from the application of any process: and any material which involves to be disposed of as being damaged, run down, spoiled, or contaminated, but does not contain any material that is an explosive within the meaning of the explosives Act 1875; or Any substances that are unwanted and ignored or on other hand deal with as if the materials were waste shall be supposed to be waste unless the contrary is proved. (PING, OMRAN, PAKIR, 2009) The waste building materials, packaging, and rubble resulting from construction, remodelling, repair, and demolition operations on pavements, houses, commercial buildings, and other structures. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Waste is defined as the by-product generated and removed from construction, renovation and demolition workplaces or sites of building and civil engineering structure. (Cheung, 1993) Waste is defined as any material by-product of human and industry activity has no residual value. (Serpell and Alarcon, 1998) Construction materials wastage is unused materials (such as blocks, bricks, concrete, glass, plastics, steel, wood and soil generated by new building construction, renovation, or pulling down of existing construction. The World Book Dictionary defines waste as useless or worthless material; stuff to be thrown away. MAJOR TYPES OF WASTE MATERIALS According to the Environment Protection Department (EPD) (Chung, 2000) .The additional wastages require more time and extra resources for removal which might delay the building operations. The most important sources of construction material waste containing such as: 1. Concrete/cement. 2. Steel/reinforcement. 3. Brick/block. 4. Plastic/PVC 5. Glass 5. Timber/formwork. 6. Screw/bolt/nail. 7. Tile, ceramic tile 8. Non-ferrous metal aluminium CONCRETE Generally, the usage of concrete is mostly for substructure and superstructure of buildings wastage is largely caused from the mismatch between the amount of concrete required and that ordered from suppliers in the case of ready mix concrete supply. The service provider might not be familiar with the exact quantity due to improper management planning, leading to over-ordering. Wastage is also happened because the delays and needless waste handling processes. STEEL REINFORCEMENT As known steel bars are considered one of the most materials being used in construction site. Wastage of steel mainly resulted from cutting. Also wastage might be happen due to damages during storage and rusting. Pre-bending in the manufacturing works can eliminate cutting waste. TIMBER While timber is one of the main materials using for formwork wastage usually happen because the continuous or bad usage and as well as the over cutting. Timber usually dumped after use to do form work. Timber cannot resist termites and can easily break. So it is not suitable for long-term usage. Old timber also usually ends up in the trash and cannot be recycled. BRICK AND BLOCK Because the common usage of bricks and blocks in construction as walling and for partition. Wastage usually caused due to the improper cutting and careless of handling material. Improper handling might raise wastage of brick and blocks damage because of the breakable nature of the materials. Bricks remained on site without usage will end up in the trash skip in the end. PLASTIC/PVC Plastic wastage normally resulted from the cutting during piping work. Also plastic wastes happen due the inappropriate storage which throws it on site without considering its bad weakness and durability. PVC or plastic will melt if it direct contact with heat. Plastic also cannot resist chemical reactions. SCREW/BOLT/NAIL/ TILE The usage of those items usually being as connection. For sure they are used with large quantity which easily damaged due to the carelessness of the workers. Throwing screws or nails by workers lead to increase the wastage of them. Also wastage of tiles commonly happens during cutting. BENEFITS OF CONSTRUCTION WASTE REDUCTION Minimizing the total costs of the project throughout avoided removal costs, averted buying new materials, and revenue profit from materials sale due to reusing of materials onsite. Helps societies, construction companies, and construction owners comply with state and local policies, such as disposal bans and recycling goals. Promote general image of construction companies which minimize waste disposal. (Zhang, 2008) Reduce the environmental impact of the waste. Cleaner and safer construction site. Conserves space in existing landfills. Additional costs are avoided by diverting waste from landfills. CAUSES OF WASTE MATERIALS GENERATION According to Ekanayake who has discuss the causes of construction waste material he said that there are many factors lead to construction waste at site and he specified that the most important are ordered the common sources of construction waste under six categories: (1) design; (2) procurement; (3) handling of materials; (4) operation; (5) residual related; and (6) others. Furthermore those sources of waste materials probably happen during main phases of the project life cycle, (1) design, (2) operational, (3) material handling and, (4) procurement. (Ekanayake) Design Carelessness to dimension skills of some materials Design changes during construction progress. Lack of experience of designers and project managers in scheduling works. Lack of attention paid to standard sizes available on the market Designers familiarity with alternative products Complication of reading drawings details Lack of information in the drawings Errors in contract documents No completed contract documents at the beginning of project low quality materials selection Procurement Suppliers and workers errors Accidents coming from carelessness of labors Damage to work done caused by subsequent trades Use of wrong materials, which need replacement Failure to reach the required quantity before work from quantity surveyors. Late passing of information to responsible person on types and sizes of materials to be used Equipment broken and rainy weather Handling materials Damage happens due to the transportation process Unsuitable storage for materials caused damages to them Materials supplied in loose form Bad construction site layout where materials close to working place Misunderstanding between teamwork and workers Theft Operations Ordering errors Lack of possibilities to order small quantities Buy materials which can not be comply with specification CONSTRUCTION WASTE REDUCTION Construction Waste Reduction has been defined by the UK Environment Agency (1997) as reducing construction waste by protective measures (prevent, reduce at source, and reuse of wasted materials) and waste management measures (quality improvement, and recycling). Similarly, Envirowise (1998) defined Construction Waste Reduction as the process of systematic waste reduction at source, by preventing and reducing waste before its physical generation, and encouraging reuse, recycling and recovery. Therefore, according to (Riemer and Kristoffersen 1999) reducing waste materials is a process of avoidance, eliminate or decrease the waste on sources or allow reuse and recycling process of waste materials for such purposes in construction field. Waste reduction hierarchy has been addressing (reduce) as one of the highest main concern for decreasing the amounts of waste. The crucial objective of the strategy of waste reduction is to avoid or eliminate it from the outset, at the beginning stage phase of the project. (Andy, Andrew and Simon) Waste reduction is achieved through the application of a Waste Reduction Hierarchy which is applied from design through to disposal, as detailed below:- 1. Reduce. Avoidance of unnecessary consumption of materials at the concept and design stage of procurement; 2. Reuse. Reuse requires the design and utilization of re-useable containers and materials without subjecting the item to a manufacturing process that changes its original configuration and composition (e.g. reusable packaging and pallets for storage); 3. Recycle. Product recycling requires the raw material to be recovered and used to manufacture another product; 4. Disposal. Disposal of waste to landfill is the least acceptable form of waste management, and is to be regarded as the option of last resort. REDUCE In the past, waste reduction strategies have taken many forms, but the main purpose has remained the cornerstone of most waste reduction strategies which is to find out the maximum practical benefits from waste materials and to produce the minimum amount of waste. The understanding of what construction materials need to buy is the most first and important part in waste reduction, then monitoring materials usage, and after that find ways to avoidance, reduce, reuse, then recycle the wasted materials. A good strategy is to target the major component in the waste material stream, and put into practice the easy waste reduction steps first. Below are some ideas to help you identify waste reduction opportunities:- Buy pre-cut materials like foam boards and floor trusses to minimize waste. Re-utilize wasted substances like siding, inside trim, door, and framework for wood, hardwood floors, and bath fitting. Planning for usage 4 x 8 panels and standard timber lengths; plan to create functional usage of standard lengths of heating tube material, metal pipes, wiring, siding, and gutters. Find out new developed methods that can decrease and make usage of materials more economically and efficiently. Consult trade publication, construction companies, and local organizations for information on resource efficient building designs and techniques. Choose design which allow and give opportunity to dismantling all parts of the structure as an alternative choice instead of the demolition, which might save building materials for recover them to be useful source of materials for volunteer organizations. Work with famous designers, contractors, and suppliers those who have good characters in usage of resource-efficient design and building. Select to expand long period of new or existing buildings. Choosing the best quality, more durable substances extend the life of the building structure and giving easier remodelling, protection, or renovation. Usage of elegant design characteristics from architect and designers might be useful for minimization of building wastage and enhance the productivity due to the genius designation like multi-purpose rooms, encouraging smaller footprints, and choosing construction materials which friendly to environment and energy efficient. Construction companies also might use cutting and advanced framing techniques to minimize building wastage, this method may produce few waste, and holding over surplus to the next construction site or donating by them to the volunteer organization. REUSE Separation of the materials is the most important thing in reuse wasted materials also separation should be separated in good condition to keep materials durability. A majority of these materials are durable and therefore, have a high potential of reuse. It would, however, be desirable to have quality standards for the recycled materials. There are many materials might recovered from construction sites waste and they can be sold, donated, stored for later use, or reused on the current project. Some materials are convenient for reuse such as doors, cabinets, windows, carpet, brick, light fixtures, ceiling and floor tiles, wood, HVAC equipment, and decorative items (including fireplaces and stonework). Construction waste can be used in the following manner: Reuse on site of blocks, stone slabs, timber, piping railings etc. Sale material that cant used again on site through design restraint or design changes. Recycle materials such as plastics, broken glass, scrap metal etc. Use materials like broken block or brick, plaster concrete pieces etc. in other application at the construction. For ex. levelling, cavity under coat of paths where the passage not required of heavy moving loads. Big pieces and unused parts can be sent to lower areas to fill them. Soft materials might be used as can be used as cover material over sanitary landfill, like sand, dust etc. RECYCLING There are some materials can be directly recycled onsite into new construction or offsite at a construction and demolition processor. Typical materials recycled from construction sites contain metal, timber, asphalt, pavement, and concrete pieces, roof materials, corrugated cardboard and wallboard. Most of the construction wastages throw out to landfill. There are many opportunities for the construction companies to reduce that in order to extend the life period of landfill sites, decrease transportation requirements and reduce the primary resource requirements. DISPOSAL Landfilling is the main method of disposal of all solid wastes including the construction waste materials in most of countries. Landfilling is not capital intensive and does not require skilled labour unlike compositing or incineration. MATERIALS CAN BE RECYCLING Recycling of construction materials has been recommended from many researchers in their studies and companies work in that field but the factual administering of construction and demolition waste recycling is limited to a few types of solid wastes. According to (Mindess et al., 2003): who thought that economy, compatibility with other materials and material properties should be taken into account when considering recycle materials. He justified that recycling can be only useful when the recycled product is economical compared to the natural resource in cost and quality. He added recycled materials will be preferable in areas where less raw materials and land filling sites exists. It investigates the technology on construction waste recycling and their viability. In addition, (Mindess, 2003) has been mentioned to materials recycling practice had been studies such as concrete, plastic, brick, ferrous and non-ferrous metal, masonry, glass and timber. CONCRETE In fact, concrete is the most materials being wasted during construction and demolition. According to (Emily, 2010), manufacturers produce more the 25 billion tonnes of concrete per year. Large quantities of concrete waste during tear down/building new construction therefore concrete need to recycle. It is an easy way to recycle concrete. The most important thing is to sort concrete and remove the steel rebar then after sorting concrete go through out crush machine to grind them forming very small pieces as sand or aggregates. Crushing can be made on site to reuse at the same time. BRICK Bricks wastage coming from construction site might be polluted with mortar, rendering and plaster, and usually they being blinded with another materials such as wood and concrete. But there are difficulties being faced in the separation of bricks which usually need to be separated and sorting by hand. There are small percentage around 10 to 15% of bricks from damaged buildings are facing bricks, therefore they need manpower and it might be expensive to sort and clean bricks. Therefore contaminated bricks are not economical to be used because that will be more costing than natural bricks. In 2004, Japanese building site had been burning the destroyed bricks into slime burnt ash. And, in recent year, bricks are commonly be crushed to form filling materials and hardcore in Hong Kong. STEEL Preferably, it is better to reuse steel wastage directly on site. If the direct usage is not possible, then it can be fuse to manufacture new steel. According to (Coventry, 1999) there is more than 80% of the steel wastage coming from construction fields being recycled into new materials in the Netherlands, despite the fact that almost 100% may be claimed to be recyclable. Steel organization reports that roughly 100% steel reinforcement is made from recycled scrap and 25% steel sections are made from recycled scrap. Scrap steel is almost completely recycled and allowed repeated recycling. Also in Japan, they recycles construction steel such as steel reinforcement and rebar due to fabricated steel or cut to resize off-site with the cutting waste, 100% of steel waste might be recycled to keep away from wastage at construction site. GLASS According to (Coventry, 1999), in UK, 425,000 tonnes of glass has been recycled. However, the recycling rate is fairly low in Hong Kong 1% comparing with countries such as USA, Japan and Germany which their rates are 20, 78 and 85%, respectively. Glass can be reused in the construction industry for a number of applications: (i) Window: (Coventry, 1999) thought that window glass might be reusing on construction that will be depend on how they deal with glass handling, storage, transportation from/to construction site, and the quality. (ii) Glass fibre: for material properties improvement, glass can be recycled in the manufacture of glass fibre using long easy process starting from collecting the waste to recycle pin then transported to treatment plant, the glass then should be sorted according to its colour and type and washed to clean it from any impurities after that glass crushed and melted then moulded into new product. Glass can be used in thermal and acoustic insulations, which can be mixed with strengthen cement, gypsum or resin products. (iii) Filling material: they had practiced recycling for glass in UK as a fine material for cement replacement called ConGlassCrete that support the strength of concrete. (iv) Tile: in US 100% replacement of recycled glass that gives good-looking reflective appearance on the exterior after burnishing. (v) Paving block: in United State they created aggregate from recycled glass by crushing. Also in Hong Kong, they are developing this recycling technology, which can produce advantages such as promote good-looking reflective appearance on the exterior after burnishing, minimize water absorption of concrete block and provide good compressive strength. However, the problems on instability, sharpness of aggregate and alkali-silica reaction expansion need to be resolved. By adopting pulverized fly ash for depressant in alkali-silica reaction and reduce the impurities are necessary in improving the quality of paving block adopting recycled glass aggregate. (vi) Asphalt in road: 15% of old glass had been recycled forming asphalt in Taiwan. Furthermore glass needed to grind to very soft materials replacing asphalt (vii) Aggregate in road: also in US material called glassphalt has been made from crushed glass and used as an aggregate in bituminous concrete pavement. (viii) Man-made soil: Japan practices adopted waste glass as ultra-fine particles at high temperature. MASONRY Masonry waste usually crushing as recycled to become masonry aggregate. So after grinding till become masonry aggregate will be such thermal insulating for concrete. it can also help concrete to be more strength with comfortable thermal insulation, masonry waste can be used after recycled for traditional clay bricks (i) Crushing recycle masonry aggregate till be as ash then will be replacement for clay in brick including sand sodium silicate brick. (ii) Using masonry aggregate in traditional clay brick in this case it prefers to avoid any contain of any element that will prevent effects on durability and strength of clay brick. (iii) In case of sing masonry in sodium silicate brick it might contains some of elements like lime but have to be under pressure of 15 bars to create sodium silicate bricks. NON-FERROUS METAL The major non-ferrous metal materials gathered from construction sites are aluminium, copper, lead and zinc (Coventry, 1999). Furthermore after separations and sorting of those materials, they can be sold directly to the scrap metal traders for recycling or directly to end-user by melting. In UK, the usage of aluminium is up to 95,000 tonnes with about 70% recycled in 1997,recycling of copper is up to 119,000 tonnes out of a national market of 262,000 tonnes used (100% recycling rate can be achieved). While paper and cardboard form approximately 37% of construction wastes by volume (EPD, 2002). Recycling companies usually reprocess them as paper product by purification. PLASTIC In fact, it is very hard to recycle plastics wastages if they are blended with other plastic or impure materials but according to (Hendriks and Pietersen, 2000) great possibility to reuse materials such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) and Polyvinylchloride (PVC) especially if they being gathered properly segregate and spotless. Because of the damages in some of the characteristic of the old plastic the possibilities of high level recycle will be definitely restricted. Virgin material should include in recycling. The recycled materials are utilized for the manufacturing of new plastic includes 70% recycled material; 30% virgin material is utilized for securing sufficient ultra violet (UV) resistance in the Netherlands. Furthermore it might be probable to develop this substitute ratio up to 80 or 90% in the coming years. According to (Coventry, 1999) there are many major chances to address when considering the recycling of plastic such as:- (i) Panel: in 1992 roofing panels have been started due to the recycling of diaphanous PVC. Because of the impurity and the consolidation, the recycling materials have less quality than new roofing component, so that should be applied for only the inferior face. This panel must be transformed to powder using cryogenic milling. Then powder should mingle with plasticizers and also mix up with other materials to produce new panel. (ii) Plastic might be street furniture, roof and floor, piling, PVC window, noise barrier, cable ducting and pipe, cladding and insulation foam through recycling and redesign for usage. (iii) there are new methods has been developed to allow construction materials to be with time infused with recycled plastic ingredient in order to increase strength, durability and impact resistance, and improve appearance. TIMBER The wastage of wood from building site operations is generated in huge amount all over the world. According to (Coventry, 1999) he mentioned to that the wastage of timber generated in UK is more than 2.5 tonnes per year. For sure, wastage of wood has possibilities to be recycled after collection for some purpose such as: (i) Timber wastage coming from building activity might be utilized directly for reusing in any applications in construction projects but before reusing need to clean the from nails and resize the them to the proper way. Furthermore unspoiled timber should be reused as board, beams, doors, floorboard, roof beam, balcony ramparts, partitions, and pile. In Japan they already developed wood waste into new technology turning them to furniture, shoring wooden pile for relocate pine trees, wood bench and timber stair. (ii) A special lightweight concrete might be formed from aggregate made from recycled small wooden pieces. (iii) According to (Hendriks and Pietersen, 2000) in Japan wood waste might be recycled as energy sources, for Ex. fuel, charcoal for power generation. Also there are more than 400,000 tonnes of wood from building activities are produced in Netherland. (iv) wood pieces wastage throwing from building activities might be recycled and reused as new building materials as partitions, board for roof, ceiling and floor, cladding in agricultural building, advertisement panels, a packaging substitute, wall and sound barrier. (v) Paper, In Japan, they recycled timber producing board and mulching. Besides that wastage of wood might be mixed with topsoil to improve soil texture and coated with plastic to produce material called plastic lumber. (vi) Clipped timber is recycled by spraying them onto sloped soil surface in Japan, which is called geofibre. (vii) Timber waste can be recycled to create insulation board, kitchen tool and furniture from the chipped timber under pressure at around 180 Ã ¢-Â ¦C for 40 min with

The Queen Versuse Dudley And Stephens

The Queen Versuse Dudley And Stephens In this report, I will be using the sited case The Queen v. Dudley and Stephens (1884) with reference to the relevant moral philosophies to anlayse what are the possible options that people would decide when they are in the same situation as Dudley. Four English sailors were trapped at sea in a small lifeboat in the South Atlantic, over a thousand miles from land. They had only two cans of preserved turnips and no fresh water. They had been without food and water for several days. And finally, Captain Thomas Dudley suggested killing Richard Parker so that they could feed on him. Dudley and Stephens ended up killing Parker, and ate him to survive. They were rescued four days later and went to trial. They were sentenced to death penalty; however, their sentence was reduced to six months imprisonment later. 2 Utilitarianism and Categorical Imperative According to Jeremy Bentham (1748 1832), the utilitarian philosophy states that the right thing to do is whatever will maximize utility. He meant utility as whatever produces pleasure or happiness and whatever prevents pain or sufferings. He had made the assumption that human are governed by the feelings of pain and pleasure and that human like pleasure and dislike pain. This doctrine said that the right thing to do is whatever produces the greatest good for the greatest number. On the other hand, Immanuel Kant (1724 1804) provides us with another alternative philosophy Categorical Imperative. He said that categorical locates morality in certain duties and right regardless of the consequences. He regards morality not as to maximize happiness but rather regard people as an end, and never as a means to an end. We should treat people with respect and not use them as mere instruments. 3 Moral and Ethical Issues Raised Some moral issues raised from this case would be that Would it be morally justified to kill an innocent person out of necessity in order to prevent many other innocent persons from dying?; Would it makes a difference if Parker gave consent to be the one being killed? and Will it be morally justified to feed on Parker, assuming he died naturally? Some may argue that it would be essential to kill one person in order to save three lives. In this case, they support Benthams utilitarianism. While others might oppose the idea of utilitarianism and argue that Parker would have the right to live and to kill a person is considered as murder regardless of the reason which suggests the doctrine of categorical imperative. 4 Viewpoints of Captain Thomas Dudley and Edwin Stephen Both Dudley and Stephen claimed that they killed and ate Parker. Under the extreme situation, they had no choice but to kill someone out of necessity. Why is necessity so important to the extent that someone will kill another person in order to save the many other people? According to Oxford dictionary, necessity is defined as a thing that you must have and cannot manage without. Maslows hierarchy of needs states that you have to fulfill the basic physiological needs before other needs. Physiological needs refer to food, air, water, breathing, nutrition, etc. Dudley and Stephen were faced with the situation without food and water, which are considered as their basic needs. I believe that in this case, the fear of dying (without food and water for several days) makes them do anything in order to survive for a short while longer to sustain hope of rescue. Their own lives and families motivated them to kill Parker. The decision made might be unacceptable by others. During near-death experience, Parker was regarded as food to them; they would not think that it is morally wrong by eating him. Majority in the same situation as them would have probably done the same thing. For instance, people suffering from famine, often turn to practice cannibalism as a last resort. During the famine period (1609 1610) in colonial Jamestown, colonists turned to cannibalism. One man was confessed to have killed and eaten his pregnant wife out of necessity (Colonial Williamsburg, 2007). They figured out that the best decision that will benefit most of the people would be to kill Parker, the weakened and ill, since he is the most likely to die before them. I have made an assumption that they had used Benthams idea of utility a common currency of value to evaluate the benefits. They had translated human life into monetary terms. They had families to support unlike Parker who had no dependents. Therefore, the death of Parker will not only benefit Dudley and Stephen, but also their families in terms of financial support and no grieving over lost of their families. They do not regard this as morally incorrect as they think that the decision made was for the greatest good for the greatest number. Professor Michael Sandels example The Runway Trolley shows that most of the people would turn the trolley car onto the side track, killing one person instead of five persons for the first scenario. This is similar to the case of Dudley and Stephen where they killed one person in order to save more people except that in the trolley case is not cannibalism. They have made the same decision as what the majority will do. 5 Viewpoints of Dudley and Stephens Families Their interests would be that Dudley and Stephen ought to have the right to live. I supposed they supported utilitarianism where Dudley and Stephen would be considered as morally justified to have eaten Parker out of necessity. I think that the idea of the greatest good for the greatest number is supported by their families. Without this, Dudley and Stephen would be deem as criminal and maybe sentenced to death. They considered their welfare as a whole would be more beneficial than having all four sailors to die, leaving their families with grieve and no support. 6 Viewpoints of Richard Parker Dudley and Stephens disrespected Parkers individual rights. Everyone have the right to live, however, utilitarianism only concerns about the sum of satisfactions. In Parkers viewpoints, I think that he would favour impartiality, where he gets the right to choose. Impartiality would mean that each persons interests are equally important; from the moral point of view, there are no privileged persons. We must recognise other peoples welfare as important as their own. Another issue raised is that he is an orphan and he had no dependents, does this mean that they could violate Parkers individual rights? The United States Declaration of Independence declared in 1766 that all men are endowed with certain inalienable rights, and that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. I think that Parker prefers categorical imperative than utilitarianism. Categorical treat people as end instead of treating the person as a tool to achieve something else. It would be morally wrong, to use Parker as a tool for their own survival. 7 Viewpoints of General Public General public would be interested to know how this verdict would impact future similar cases. Precedent becomes binding and must be followed by courts of same rank. If judge allows the use of necessity as a defence, then there will be a higher risk of more atrocious crime. And the problem rise with who should decide what is considered as necessity. 8 My Stand as Captain Thomas Dudley If I were Dudley, I would not kill Parker and rather wait for rescue under the same circumstances. I would define moral as the principles of right conduct or the distinction between right and wrong. I would support categorical imperative in this situation. The reasons for my choice are as below: Individual rights I believe that human have certain fundamental rights. Kant mentioned that every person is worthy of respect, not because we own ourselves but because we are rational beings, capable of reason; we are also autonomous beings, capable of acting and choosing freely. We should take into account of individual needs. However, utilitarianism would argue that by taking account of individual needs rather than the overall needs would produce greater unhappiness over happiness. Utilitarianism requires us to promote the general welfare which results in no priority given to our own interests. It stated that every persons life and interest rank equally with everyone elses. For instance, if a parent thinks that by sacrificing his child to be burned in a building, thinking that someone else in the building should be saved as their future contribution to the general welfare seems greater than the childs. (Cyndi Banks, 2004) I would think that the parents act as immoral. This is because family and friends are not just members of humanity, they are special to us and if we were to show no more concern for their welfare than others, it just does not seem right. I think to put a common currency of value to human life would be inappropriate. Human life is beyond calculations and assigning monetary terms to it does not suffice. This is because money could not buy health (life). Murder is murder, innocent Moreover, I think that murder is considered as fundamentally wrong, no matter under what situation; murder is still not morally permissible. No doubt that sometimes murder is use as self-defense, but it would still be morally wrong. If they were to do so, then what is the difference between them and the person who is causing danger to them? For example, in the case of terrorists, they killed thousands of people so as to achieve their purpose. When these terrorists were caught by the police, they interrogated and tortured them. In this way, the police are acting like the terrorists where they use others so as to achieve their goal. Kant said that we should not use people as instruments to achieve their own goals. I would agree to his idea that individual has the rights to live and it is unfair to make use of them to achieve their goal. Some may say that the terrorists deserved for what they have done. However, Parker is innocent, he did not do anything wrong to Dudley and Stephen nor did he choose to die. Consent This raised another issue of whether consent were given by Parker, would be morally justifiable for Dudley to do so. I think that the consent given by Parker would be a good reason (but not necessary the morally right reason) for Dudley to kill him. This merely lessens Dudleys guilt, but still morally incorrect. It does not mean that the permission given to do something would be morally correct. For example, if A were to give permission to B to kill C, does this mean that B is correct? I believe that everyone would agree that B is wrong. Necessity Parker had no family whereas Dudley and Stephen had families at home. They were without food and water for numerous days and the decision to kill Parker might have save the rest. I understand that under extreme situation, the fear of dying would make someone do something that he or she would not have done previously. However, this does not permit them to kill parker. I think that under no circumstances that someone has the power to voluntary take another persons life. Lord Denning laid down the general approach from the case of Southwark London Borough Council v Williams (1971) that necessity should be denied as a defence otherwise anarchy and disorder would follow. He add on that if hunger was allowed to become the basis of necessity, any poor person might seek to justify burglary to steal food by saying that he or she had reasonable believed that this was a response to the threat of malnutrition. As a rational person, I believe that this would not be what the general public would want. Therefore, even in Benthams point of view, to measure the overall happiness, I think it would be more appropriate to consider the general public instead of just Dudley, Stephen and their families. It would be morally wrong for Dudley and Stephen to kill Parker. Die naturally and feed on parker? 9 Conclusion I think that people will determine the right thing to do (whether involved or as onlookers), and decide based on different philosophies for different situations. They tend not to follow one particular philosophy at all times. For example, the case of ticking time bomb, where torturing of terrorist is required to reveal the bombs location (Michael Sandel, 2009). I believe majority would support the idea of torturing the terrorist to save thousands of lives even we are uncertain of whether he knows about the location. I still think that it would be morally wrong to torture the terrorist because I do not want to act like a terrorist. However, I think that it is not about right or wrong but rather you must do it even though you knew it was wrong. The difference between this case and Dudleys case would be the impact. In the terrorists case, not only thousands of lives are involved, the impact is greater where other countries might also be affected as well (financial and tourism). Secondly, I think that guilty does not equate to morally incorrect and vice versa. Similarly, law and morality are not the same, and many things may be immoral which are not necessarily illegal. If these men were to be found innocent, it would signal the divorce of law from morality. Lastly, I think that it would be a wise decision for not allowing necessity to be used as defence. Just like what Lord Denning had said, by allowing necessity as a defence, disorder would follow. Then what is the purpose for having law and justice? Law is to uphold the justice in society, if necessity can be used as defence, and then there would be a lot of excuses of the wrongdoer.